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Classical Liberal Arts Academy

Classical Prose

Lesson 01.   Introduction to Classical Prose

by Mr. William Michael |  Need help?  E-mail Support

1.  Lesson

Lesson Directions:  Read the following lesson carefully.  You must know everything in it to complete your lesson exercises and pass your lesson examination.

Welcome to the Classical Liberal Arts Academy's Writers' School!   This school is unlike any other in that it is taught by the masters whose books are on the shelves of every library around the world.  We will be studying ancient lessons on writing that were given by history's wisest men.   We will begin our study with the simplest questions because most students never answer them and then struggle to write well for the rest of their lives. 

WHAT IS "WRITING" ?

1.  Most schools talk about "writing" as if it is a great mystery!  There is great concern that students will become "good writers" so they create "writing" classes and hire "writing" teachers and practice "writing".  In the end, there are still no good writers. 

Most students simply believe that writing isn't for them and they shrug their shoulders and say, "I'm not a good writer."  Some students, who happen to write something well are said to have the "gift" of writing.  This confusion is a result of goofy ideas about what writing is and how people become great writers.  Hopefully, you won't grow up with this confusion.  Let's start by answering the simple question:  "What is writing?"

The Greek philosopher Aristotle, who we will learn more about later in this lesson, taught (very simply) that writing is putting spoken words down on paper.  Think of how simple that definition is.  No mystery.  No confusion. 

To the masters, writing begins with speaking, but speaking begins with ideas.   Ideas are the images in our minds of things that we have seen, touched, tasted, heard, smelled and understood.  When we communicate, we work to share our ideas with others.  The challenge we face is moving ideas from our minds into the minds of others.   There are a few ways for us to do this.

2.  First, we can share our ideas by using images.  Some men are excellent artists and can draw, paint, or carve exactly what they have in mind.  We may also point to an object or image for others to see.  However, what we find is that when the time comes to share an idea, what we draw or paint or carve usually does not look like what we had in mind.  We stare at it, look at it from different angles, and say, "Hmmm.  That's terrible!  I'm not a good artist.". 

3.  Second, we can share our ideas by speaking. Words are spoken symbols that are established by the agreement and use of men that allow us to share ideas with one another.  A dictionary contains all of the words used by a group of people, rules for their proper pronunciation and their accepted meanings. 

Look at the image on the right.   If you wanted to speak of this image, you would need to use a word--a word whose meaning other people knew.   If you pointed to the picture and said "Horse.", English speakers would understand you, but Spanish speakers would not.  If you said "Equum.", Latin speakers would understand you, and if you said "Hippos", Greeks would understand, but no one else.  If you said "Gragglebum.", no one would understand you because that is not a word men have agreed upon to name the animal in the picture.

As an artist can add more details to an image than simple black lines, we can add more detail to our speech than simple names.  In Grammar we learn of the eight parts of speech, and they allow us to use great detail when we speak so that we can share ideas more effectively.  We can use adjectives to add details to nouns so that instead of saying "Horse.", we can say, "White horse."  We can use participles to say "Leaping white horse." and the message becomes clearer.  We can use verbs to say "The leaping white horse neighed.".  We can use conjunctions to add more detail: "The leaping white horse neighed and kicked." Grammar teaches us to use all of these parts of speech so that we can share ideas down to their finest details.

Our words are spoken symbols or signs for ideas in our minds, but we can only share ideas with people who know our words and the images they are used to signify.   This is what we must understand as we study to become excellent speakers.  Some people have a difficult time sharing ideas with spoken words, but instead of studying to speak more clearly, they say, "Oh, I can't think of what I want to say.  I'm just not a good speaker.".

Note:  Be careful to understand that looking at a picture of a horse, we do not see a horse, but an image of a horse.  When you say the word "horse", you are using a spoken symbol for an image of a horse.  Keeping these things clear in your mind will help you think to speak more clearly.

4.  Third, we can share our ideas by writing.  When we write, we use written symbols to represent the sounds we hear spoken.  We signify the sounds by letters and syllables to finally symbolize entire spoken words.  In some languages, like Latin and Greek, every letter represents one spoken sound and we "spell" words by simply combining the letters that signify each sound we hear spoken.  In other languages, like English, we often use written words as signs of spoken words that really have very little to do with the sounds of the words or letters.  For example, in the word "neighed", the letters "g" and "h" don't represent any sounds at all!  We simply memorize the written word and its spelling as a symbol of the spoken word.  This is what makes reading and spelling so difficult in English.  However, in languages like Chinese (see picture), symbols are used that represent ideas and not spoken sounds.  The problem with this method is that human beings have thousands of different ideas that would require thousands of different symbols!  To share ideas, everyone would need to know how to read thousands of symbols.  By representing spoken sounds instead of ideas, we can write any spoken word using only 26 symbols in English and only 24 in Latin and Greek.  Chinese may be beautiful to look at, but English, Latin and Greek are much easier to share ideas with.  This is the main reason why English, Latin and Greek have all served as world languages, while Chinese will not.

When we understand that writing is simply taking words we speak and setting them down on paper, we see that no one can learn to write well without first learning to speak well!  Further, when we see that success in speaking is based on the development of clear ideas and sharing them with words, we can see that there is no reason why we cannot learn to speak well!  We must learn to identify the obstacles that prevent us from speaking and writing well and then we can study to overcome them.

WHAT ARE THE OBSTACLES TO SPEAKING?

There are a three basic obstacles that cause us to struggle to speak well.  They are:

1. the speaker's ideas are vague or inaccurate;

2. the speaker's vocabulary is insufficient to signify his ideas;

3. the audience is unprepared to hear or understand the speaker.

First, we may struggle to speak well because the ideas in our minds are not clear and accurate images of the objects they represent.  Often, we think we have a thing clearly fixed in our minds, but when the time comes to share it, we quickly learn that it is not as clearly fixed as we thought.  Most people start making excuses as if the problem is not with their ideas, but that is where the problem lies.  Our studies enable us to develop an unlimited number of accurate ideas and when our ideas become clearer and clearer through observation and meditation, we will remove the obstacle of unclear ideas.

Second, we may hold ideas in our minds that are very clear and detailed, but we may not know words that will allow us to speak of those details.  For example, you might have a clear image of a horse in your mind, but can you name all the different parts of the horse's body?   If you wished to speak of the horse you might have the image of a specific part in your mind, but you would not have the words necessary to share your idea.   We can overcome this obstacle by building a broad and rich vocabulary, mainly through our everyday studies but also by simply making an effort to learn new words by reading on different subjects and taking care to remember words we learn.

Third, we may have ideas that are very clear and we may have an excellent supply of words to speak of them, but we not be able to communicate with our audience.  This problem may be ideological, grammatical, logical or rhetorical.

Our problem is ideological when our hearers are not familiar with our ideas.  You may find yourself one day speaking to a person who, because of his religion or way of life, or location, has never observed things you have observed or thought of things you have thought of.  You may find that there is a lack of shared ideas that allow you to communicate.  For example, how can you speak of the sound of a horse with a deaf man, or the color of a horse with a blind man?  How can you speak of Catholic ideas with a Buddhist who may view the world in a completely different way?  While we may not be able to share certain ideas with someone who is deaf or blind, we may be able to share observations and experiences with others that prepare them to understand our ideas. 

Our problem is grammatical when our hearers may share many of our ideas, but do not share our language or understand our words.  In most countries, there are people who do not share the language spoken by most of the people living there.  They see and hear the same things day in and day out and have the same images in their minds, but the words they use to speak of them are different than the words others use.  To share ideas, people of different languages must take the time to learn one another's language or make use of a translator.  A translator knows both languages very well and is able to take the words of one speaker and translate them into words understood by the other speaker.

We may also have a grammatical problem when our hearers do share our language, but they do not know words or phrases we use.  In your exercises below, you will read a good English translation of the teaching of St. Thomas Aquinas, but even though it is in your language and he speaks of basic Christian ideas, you will find it very difficult to understand.  The way St. Thomas speaks and the words he uses are strange for readers who are not used to reading philosophy and theology and so there is a grammatical obstacle that keeps you from understanding his writing.  You will face this problem anytime you speak with an audience that hasn't studied grammar and uses a vocabulary that is not well developed.  You will be required to learn how to share your ideas with them by using spoken words and expressions they understand. 

Our problem is logical when we do not lead our hearers step by step from one idea to another.  We may have reasoned through a problem and come to an understanding of a conclusion, but if we fail to share the steps we took to move from the first ideas to the final ideas, our hearers may simply not understand how we came to those final ideas.  For example, a parent might get angry at children who don't wash their hands before they sit down at the table and ask, "What's wrong with you?  Don't you understand that you need to wash you hands before you eat?".  The children understand the words their mother speaks, but look at their hands and say, "Mom, we don't see any dirt on our hands."  The mother is thinking about germs that cannot be seen and the children are thinking that the reason their mother wants them to wash their hands is to remove any dirt that can be seen.  The mother has not explained her reasons for washing and the problem she has in sharing her ideas is logical.

Lastly, our problem is rhetorical when, for some reason, our audience does not wish to listen to us.  You may have been speaking to an audience that can understand your ideas, words and expressions...but doesn't wish to.  They may not wish to because they do not trust you, because they desire to disagree with you no matter what you say or because they are simply not interested at the time.  These obstacles are overcome through the study of the art of Rhetoric, by which we learn to gain the trust of our hearers, interest them in what we have to say and discourage them from disagreeing with us before they learn our ideas.  You should know that your diligent study of the classical liberal arts will allow you to overcome all of these obstacles. 

HOW ARE THESE OBSTACLES REMOVED?

In the CLAA, we follow an ancient course of studies that has produced history's greatest speakers and writers--men who understood the obstacles described above and overcame them through study, imitation and practice. 

The masters studied the classical liberal arts because they understood that it would be impossible to think, speak or write well until they had developed a healthy mind--full of truth and wisdom.  They knew that a skill as complex as speaking or writing well could not be mastered by any man who did not possess knowledge of all of the branches of learning, along with a life his hearers would respect and admire.  Therefore, the masters of speaking and writing were, first of all, masters of the classical liberal arts.

Second, the masters studied the greatest speakers and writers who worked before them, learning what made them successful and imitating those qualities.  Aristotle studied Homer, Hesiod, Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides--the masters before him in Greece.  Cicero studied Aristotle and all the authors he studied.  Vergil studied Cicero and all the masters he studied.  Dante studied Vergil and all the masters he studied.  We will study the masters before us...and all the masters they studied so that we may practice imitating all of the qualities that made them great.

Lastly, all of the masters who overcame the obstacles of speaking and writing did so by years and years of diligent practice.   Many of their greatest works were written near the end of their lives, though they had studied speaking and writing for many years.  When they did prepare their greatest works, it often took them a very long time to do so.  Vergil spent the last twenty years of his life writing his famous poem, the Aeneid.  The Catholic poet Dante spent the same amount of time writing his famous poem the Divine Comedy.  When the great writers reached the end of their lives, they often weren't satisfied with their writings and wanted men to destroy them when they died! 

If writing was difficult for the masters, we should not expect young students to write well before they have completed their full course of studies.  You will not speak or write well until you master the liberal arts, spend time studying and imitating the masters and work diligently at your own speaking and writing.  This education begins in the CLAA, but will continue for the rest of your life.  The way to become a master is open before you, but no one can do the work for you.  If such a desire exists in your heart there is a simple rule for your success:  work and pray.

WHO ARE THE MASTERS OF WRITING?

In the CLAA, we do not study the ideas of modern men who give us their advice yet are not masters themselves.  We don't want advice from people who aren't able to do the things they are teaching others how to do--what a foolish plan that would be!   Would you ever seek to learn how to build a house from a man who never built any houses himself?  Would you ever ask a sickly man for advice on how to maintain a healthy body?  Of course not.  Neither should we allow ourselves to be taught by men who cannot lead us by their own example of wisdom and excellence.  For this reason, we study the masters whom history shows us are the greatest men to ever think, speak and write. 

Let's take a few minutes to meet these masters.

ARISTOTLE (384-322 BC)

Aristotle was an ancient Greek wise man who studied, mastered and taught many important subjects.  It is harder to make a tool than to use a tool made by someone else and therefore we must be careful to give Aristotle the respect he deserved for having discovered and taught the arts that men have used and enjoyed for the past 2300 years.  Many today believe the ancients were a bunch of dumb cavemen, but this is a lie.  The ancients were wiser than we are, and the reason they didn't have many of the gizmos and gadgets we have today wasn't because they couldn't figure out how to make them.  They gave no thought to making money or seeking pleasure.  They were focused on more important things--wisdom, happiness and justice.  We would do well to imitate them. 

Aristotle was the first to teach the art of Reason and he did so in two parts:  the first, called Dialectic and the second called Analytics or Logic.  He was also the first to clearly teach the art of speaking and persuasion in his lessons on Rhetoric.  He wrote on plants, animals, weather, dreams, the soul, the universe, and much more. 

What makes Aristotle different is that his life and teaching has born great fruit--in his own day and throughout all history.  During his own life, he was chosen by the most powerful man in the world, King Philip of Macedon to teach his own son, Alexander.  Aristotle's teaching led Alexander to become greater than his father.  Beginning when he was 23 years old, Alexander conquered the entire world--in only 13 years!  In history, we call him "Alexander the Great" and he is, by far, the most impressive human conqueror to ever live.  His wisdom in battle is owed to his teacher, Aristotle.

In Christian history, St. Thomas Aquinas proved that the teachings of Aristotle were very close to the true teachings of Christianity.  Though Aristotle received no revelation from God (as the Jews did), he discovered many truths by study and the use of reason.  Today, Christians who hold to many of the teachings of Aristotle are called "Scholastics" or "Thomists" because they follow St. Thomas in the approval of Aristotle's works. 

We will build our knowledge of thinking, speaking and writing on the teaching of such a man as this--a man whose wisdom is proven over thousands of years.  That's the kind of teacher we want when it comes to speaking and writing well.

MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO (106-43 BC)

Cicero, also called Tully, was a Roman philosopher who was among Rome's greatest men when it was at its greatest height.  A close friend of Julius Caesar, Cicero guided the Roman people as they became wealthy and powerful--and guarded them against selfish men who sought to use that wealth and power for their own personal benefit.  Cicero served his country as a lawyer, senator and consul--which was the highest position in the Roman government during the Republic. 

Cicero was famous, however, for his incredible power in speaking.  He is believed by many to be the greatest speaker to ever live and the victories he won in the courts, in the senate and in the hearts of the Roman people proves that he probably was.  Because of his great success, men studied his ways and asked him to teach them the principles and rules he followed in preparing his speeches and persuading his hearers.  One man in particular, Gaius Herennius, asked for instruction and Cicero agreed.  Cicero wrote a famous textbook on the art of speaking that is called, Rhetorica ad Herennium or "Rhetoric for Herennius". 

Throughout Christian history, Cicero has been the focus of studies among the greatest Christian students.  Cicero's wisdom and power in speaking, his mastery of vocabulary and expressions along with his virtuous goals and desires provide us with the best of examples to imitate in all of the different forms of speaking and writing we will ever need to use.  His works are available to us to study and imitate and we will do so throughout our years of study in the CLAA.  In Grammar II we begin studying Cicero's letters and speeches in Latin.  In the CLAA Writers' School we will study and practice his teachings.  In Rhetoric we will study his writings on Rhetoric in great detail.  Who better than a proven wise man, who helped build the greatest empire in world history and has been held up as the greatest speaker for over 2,000 years by Christians and non-Christians alike? 

JESUS CHRIST (4 BC-33 AD)

There has never been a master who faced the challenges Jesus Christ did.  He, coming down from Heaven, was the only man who had ever seen God or known the kingdom of heaven in all its details.  His mission was to share the ideas that were found only in the mind of God with men.   

Therefore, when we read the Gospels, we read the world's greatest master.  St. Paul said, "The eye hath not seen, nor ear heard: neither hath it entered into the heart of man, what things God hath prepared for them that love him." and yet Our Lord came to share these ideas with men of every walk of life:  fishermen, priests, farmers, prostitutes, soldiers, children, mothers, beggars and princes.

He is called "the Wisdom of God" and we find Him using many different methods to speak to different groups.  To some he shouts commands and demands obedience.  To others, he whispers in secret places and moves them to loving tears.  To some he speaks with fables and illustrations.  To others he does not speak at all.  In studying the life and teaching of Our Lord, we will find the perfection of all of the arts and, most of all, the art of speaking.

Thus, the instruction we seek is not from modern men calling themselves experts while they offer us no proof of their expertise.  Our instruction will be taken from the three great masters and that instruction will lead us to success, just as it has led most of history's greatest writers.  The names of the great Catholic masters--Dante, Chaucer, More, Shakespeare, Dryden, Pope, Chesterton , Tolkien and the rest--all have this in common:  they learned from Aristotle, Cicero and Jesus Christ.  We will join their school--the best school of all--and begin with the study of Classical Prose.

WHAT IS "CLASSICAL PROSE"?

In this course, you will be introduced to the basic ideas that you will study in much greater depth in Grammar and Rhetoric and in the Writers' School in the future.  This course will help you to begin to develop mastery of prose.  What is prose?

When it comes to speaking and writing, there are two basic genera, or kinds, of writing.  The first is prose and the second is poetry.  Prose is simple, everyday language. Your school lessons are written in prose, you speak to your family and friends in prose, newspapers and magazines are written mostly in prose.  Prose is simple, straightforward language as you are reading right now.

Poetry, on the other hand, is speech or writing that is full of symbols and figures, imagination and meter.  By meter we mean a pattern one can hear as the lines are read, making the language sound more like a song.  Poetry often uses rhyming words to make the language even more stylish.  Here's a short example from an English poem called, "The Goose" by Tennyson:

  I knew an old wife, lean and poor,
  Her rags scarce held together;
  There strode a stranger to the door,
  And it was windy weather.

  He held a goose upon his arm,
  He utter'd rhyme and reason,
  "Here, take the goose, and keep you warm,
  It is a stormy season".

  She caught the white goose by the leg,
  A goose?'twas no great matter.
  The goose let fall a golden egg
  With cackle and with clatter.

You can see as you read these lines that they have a rhyme and rhythm that is very easy to notice.   In each section, the final word of the third line rhymes with the final word of the first line, and the same is true of the fourth line and the second.  You can also count and see that the first and third lines have eight syllables, while the second and fourth lines have seven.  You can also see that changes are made to the words to allow them to fit into the rhythm of the poem.  For example, the phrase "it was" is shortened to " 'twas".  We see that words are used to represent the sounds of an animal--"a cackle and a clatter".  This is poetry.  Some poems are very short and simple, like nursery rhymes written to entertain children.  Other poems are complex and very long, like Dante's Divine Comedy, which can fill over 900 pages!

While prose may be the plain language we use every day, that does not mean everyone speaks in excellent prose.  Often, we do not describe things as exactly as we should, we do not narrate events as clearly as we should and so on.  Our words may not be pleasant to listen to, but sound choppy and poorly pronounced.  Our lines may have no order or rhythm.  Our sentences may be poorly formed and lead our readers to read something other than we wished to say.  Our goal will be to perfect our prose and we will follow the instructions of the great masters of the classical age, and it is for this reason that the course is named "Classical Prose".

SUMMARY

In this course, we will begin to study writing, beginning at the beginning.  Simple prose speaking and writing will be studied, with the classical masters--Aristotle and Cicero--leading us on our way.

"Writing", however, is not to be thought of as an art of its own.  We have learned that writing is nothing more than putting spoken words down on paper.  Spoken words are symbols of ideas and ideas are symbols of things we see, hear, taste, touch, smell and understand.  There are a number of challenges that we must overcome when we try to share ideas with others.  We must make sure that our ideas are clear and accurate, first of all.  Then, we must work to express them with images or words that others will understand, so that the image passes perfectly from our mind to theirs.  Our ability to do this will determine how well we can draw, paint, speak or write.  Furthermore, we will learn that not only what we say but how we say it will determine how well we accomplish the goal of speaking and writing, which is to "secure the agreement of our hearers."  Let's get to work with our first exercises.

2.  Memory Work

Directions:  The following questions help you to memorize the most important points of this lesson.  Commit them perfectly to memory and have a parent or praeceptor quiz you to test your mastery before completing your lesson exercises or taking your lesson exam.

2.  What is Speaking?
Speaking is the art of sharing ideas with spoken words.

3.  What is Writing?
Writing is the setting down of spoken words for others to read.

4.  What are the three basic obstacles to speaking and writing? 
The three basic obstacles to speaking and writing are: (1) the speaker's ideas are vague or inaccurate, (2) the speaker's vocabulary is insufficient to signify his ideas (3) the audience is unprepared to hear or understand the speaker.

5.  How are the obstacles to speaking and writing removed?
The obstacles to speaking and writing are removed by (1) the study of the classical liberal arts, (2) the imitation of history's greatest speakers and writers and (3) diligent exercise in our own speaking and writing.

6.  What are the two basic genera of speaking and writing? 
The two basic genera of speaking and writing are Prose and Poetry.

7.  What is Prose?
Prose is plain speech.

8.  What is Poetry?
Poetry is stylish speech that consists of specially imaginative, figurative and metrical language.

3.  Lessson Exercises

Directions:  The following assignments are required for this lesson and should be practiced as often as possible.  Follow the instructions carefully and do them repeatedly, while asking others to do them as well.  Study the results and consider the lessons about writing.

The objective of this game is to communicate an idea without using any words or pointing to any images.  A group of family members or friends serves as the "guessers" and the student as the "actor".  One guesser writes a secret word or phrase on a piece of paper and gives it to the student.  The student must communicate the idea to the other guessers without using any words, pointing to objects or props.  Detailed rules for the game can be found in a game book or online.  The student should focus on the challenge of moving ideas from his mind to the minds of others and practice this regularly.  No submission required.

Exercise 02:  Twenty Questions

The objective of this game is to learn how information gained by an audience brings an image in the speaker's mind into focus in their own.   The student is the answerer and friends or family members are the questioners.  The answerer closes his eyes, thinks and selects an idea in his mind.  Then, the questioners take turns asking 20 questions that can be answered with a simple "Yes" or "No", trying to guess the idea in the mind of the answerer.  The student should focus on what allows an idea to move from his mind to the minds of others and practice this regularly.  No submission required.

Exercise 03:  Sharing Your Ideas With Images

The objective of this exercise is to understand how vague ideas lead to poor communication.  Begin with a blank sheet of paper and pencil.  Select an object in your house or outside and study it carefully for 2 minutes.  Then, close your eyes and think carefully on the image of the object in your mind.  Then, draw the image exactly without looking at it again, but relying on the image in your mind.  When finished, sit back and look at the drawing.  Is it a clear representation of the image in your mind?  If not, why?  Repeat this exercise often using different objects.  The student should focus on whether images in his mind are as clear as he thinks they are when the time comes to share them.  No submission required.

Exercise 04:  Sharing Your Ideas With Words (Submit Here)

The objective of this exercise is to learn how ideas and words relate to different audiences.  The following passage is an English translation of the teaching of St. Thomas Aquinas.  Read it carefully, then use the link above to submit your answers to questions about your reading.

1		"As stated in the preceding article, there are two ways of adjuring: one by
		way of prayer or inducement through reverence of some holy thing: the
		other by way of compulsion. On the first way it is not lawful to adjure the
		demons because such a way seems to savor of benevolence or friendship,
5		which it is unlawful to bear towards the demons. As to the second kind of
		adjuration, which is by compulsion, we may lawfully use it for some purposes,
		and not for others. For during the course of this life the demons are our
		adversaries: and their actions are not subject to our disposal but to that of God
		and the holy angels, because, as Augustine says, "the rebel spirit is ruled by the
10		just spirit." Accordingly we may repulse the demons, as being our enemies,
		by adjuring them through the power of God's name, lest they do us harm of
		soul or body, in accord with the Divine power given by Christ, as recorded
		by Luke 10:19: "Behold, I have given you power to tread upon serpents and
		scorpions, and upon all the power of the enemy: and nothing shall hurt you."
15
		It is not, however, lawful to adjure them for the purpose of learning something
		from them, or of obtaining something through them, for this would amount to
		holding fellowship with them: except perhaps when certain holy men, by
		special instinct or Divine revelation, make use of the demons' actions in order
20		to obtain certain results: thus we read of the Blessed James that  he caused
		Hermogenes to be brought to him, by the instrumentality of the demons."

St. Thomas Aquinas
Summa Theologica II.ii.90.2

4.  Lesson Examination

Directions:  When you have completed all of your assignments above, complete your lesson examination. 

Complete Lesson 01 Examination

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